Gae Aulenti: Biography, Works, Awards

Gae Aulenti (1927–2012) was an Italian architect, designer, and theorist whose work redefined adaptive reuse and the integration of historical context in modern architecture. Born in Palazzolo dello Stella, she studied at the Politecnico di Milano (Polytechnic University of Milan), graduating in 1954, where she was influenced by Ernesto Nathan Rogers and the Neo-Liberty movement’s emphasis on individuality and locality in design. Rejecting the uniformity of postwar modernism, Aulenti developed an approach that balanced preservation with innovation, transforming existing structures into contemporary cultural spaces. Her practice encompassed architecture, interior, furniture, lighting, and stage design, reflecting a multidisciplinary model of modern architectural production. Representing a contextual and humanistic current within modern architecture, Aulenti is best known for the conversion of the Gare d’Orsay into the Musée d’Orsay in Paris (1986), which established a global standard for adaptive reuse. Other major works include the refurbishment of Palazzo Grassi in Venice (1985), the redesign of the Palau Nacional for the Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya in Barcelona (1992), the transformation of the Scuderie del Quirinale in Rome (1999), and the Asian Art Museum in San Francisco (2003). Her portfolio also included urban projects such as Milan’s Piazzale Cadorna (2000) and product designs like the Pipistrello lamp (1965) and Tavolo con Ruote (1980), demonstrating her ability to apply architectural logic across scales. Aulenti’s achievements earned international recognition, including the Praemium Imperiale for Architecture (1991), the Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (1995), and the Compasso d’Oro Award (1995). Her methodology placed renovation and interior reconfiguration on par with new construction, shaping contemporary museum design and urban restoration. She also broadened professional inclusivity—her success in mid-century Italy, a male-dominated field, proved that women could lead major international projects and influence architectural discourse. Her designs emphasized historical continuity, spatial experience, and material integrity, combining modern functionality with cultural depth. Aulenti’s influence extended through her editorial work at Casabella, her mentorship of younger collaborators, and her partnerships with engineers, artists, and theater directors. Free of personal controversy, her career was defined by intellectual rigor and independence. Gae Aulenti’s legacy endures through her built works and her transformative approach to contextual architecture, which continues to shape the theory and practice of adaptive reuse in the twenty-first century.

Who is Gae Aulenti?

Gae Aulenti was an Italian architect born in 1927 in Palazzolo dello Stella, who became widely recognized for her leadership in adaptive reuse design. She pursued architecture, enrolling at the Politecnico di Milano in 1948. Aulenti graduated in 1954 and established herself as a versatile designer, initially working as an editor for the design magazine Casabella. Over her career, she completed projects across Europe, Asia, and North America, ranging from museum renovations to furniture and theater set designs. Gae Aulenti was one of the pioneering female architects of the 20th century, gaining international recognition at a time when few women in Italy practiced architecture. She remained an independent practitioner rather than leading a large corporate firm, but her influence was global. Aulenti’s work and professional presence made her a significant figure in contemporary architecture. She continued to design and consult throughout her later years, leaving a legacy of culturally significant projects. Aulenti passed away in Milan in 2012. Gae Aulenti is remembered for major works like the Musée d’Orsay conversion and for breaking barriers in a male-dominated field, inspiring future generations of designers.

What type of architecture does Gae Aulenti represent?

Gae Aulenti represents an approach to modern architecture that emphasizes historical continuity, contextual design, and artistic freedom, closely linked to the Italian Neo-Liberty movement. While mid-20th-century modernism focused on minimalism and industrial materials, Aulenti’s style opposed these uniform trends. She emphasized respecting local traditions and integrating them with contemporary solutions. Her architectural work often involved renovating or repurposing existing structures, balancing old and new. Gae Aulenti’s designs combine classical elements with modern features; she often preserved ornate facades or structural components of historic buildings while introducing modern lighting, open layouts, and new materials. This philosophy aligned with Neo-Liberty ideals, prioritizing individual expression over the impersonal aesthetic of International Style architecture. Aulenti’s work does not align strictly with any single style like High-Tech or Brutalism; it is often described as postmodern in spirit due to its contextual sensitivity and layered references. Throughout her career, she reinforced the principle that modern architecture can coexist with heritage, a concept that remains influential in architectural restoration and museum design worldwide.

What is Gae Aulenti’s great accomplishment?

Gae Aulenti’s great accomplishment is her pivotal role in transforming historic structures into modern cultural spaces, most notably through the conversion of the Gare d’Orsay into the Musée d’Orsay in Paris. Completed in 1986, this project turned a 19th-century Beaux-Arts railway station into one of the world’s leading museums of Impressionist and 19th-century art. The Musée d’Orsay commission was a major international assignment, and Aulenti’s success with it earned her global recognition. By repurposing a grand train station into a functional museum, she established a new standard for adaptive reuse in architecture. The project proved that historic architecture could be reimagined for contemporary use without compromising its character. In addition to the Musée d’Orsay, Gae Aulenti’s career includes significant projects such as the renovation of Venice’s Palazzo Grassi and the redesign of Barcelona’s Palau Nacional for the National Museum of Catalan Art, but the Orsay remains her most influential work. This accomplishment led to multiple honors, including the Praemium Imperiale prize in 1991, which recognized her lasting contribution to architecture and design.

Gae Aulenti’s most important works demonstrate her skill in transforming existing structures and designing cultural landmarks worldwide. Her portfolio centers on museums, exhibition spaces, and design installations, led by the Musée d’Orsay in Paris, where she converted a Beaux-Arts train station into an art museum; the transformation of Venice’s 18th-century Palazzo Grassi into an exhibition center; the refurbishment of Barcelona’s Palau Nacional for the National Museum of Catalan Art, integrating new galleries within a historic palace; the conversion of Rome’s Scuderie del Quirinale, a former royal stable, into an art venue; and the redesign of the Asian Art Museum in San Francisco, where a former library became a museum.

01. Musée d’Orsay, Paris

The Musée d’Orsay in Paris is Gae Aulenti’s signature project, where she converted the former Gare d’Orsay railway station into an art museum. The station, built in 1900 in the Beaux-Arts style, had ceased operation as a train terminal by the late 1970s. In 1981, Aulenti was appointed lead architect for the interior design and layout, tasked with adapting the vast structure into a museum for 19th-century art. The museum opened in 1986, exhibiting French art from 1848 to 1914, including a major collection of Impressionist paintings. Aulenti’s design preserved the station’s iron-and-glass barrel vault and details such as the giant clock, while introducing new architectural elements to serve the museum’s function. She installed broad elevated walkways and platforms as galleries within the former train hall and used materials such as rough-cut stone, steel, and glass to create modern surfaces that complemented the historic framework. The building functions as a public art museum and remains a benchmark in adaptive reuse, merging a transport structure with exhibition requirements. Aulenti’s lighting design, developed with Piero Castiglioni, utilized the station’s skylights and halogen fixtures to illuminate artworks effectively. By maintaining a balance between preservation and transformation, the Musée d’Orsay became an architectural landmark. The project generated both praise and critique—many admired its spatial clarity, while some viewed the interior interventions as excessive. Over time, the Musée d’Orsay has been recognized as a pivotal achievement, confirming Gae Aulenti’s international standing.

02. Palazzo Grassi, Venice

Palazzo Grassi in Venice is an 18th-century palace on the Grand Canal that Gae Aulenti refurbished into an art exhibition space. Built in 1772 as a noble residence, the building was later acquired by the Fiat Group and designated for conversion into a cultural venue in the early 1980s. Aulenti was commissioned in 1983 to redesign the interiors while maintaining the historical structure. She removed the interior partitions and carried out a 13-month renovation that balanced restoration with new functional requirements. Palazzo Grassi reopened in 1985 as a light-filled exhibition center for art and historical displays. In this project, Aulenti’s approach was adaptive restoration: she repaired and cleaned the original masonry and decorative details, while integrating new infrastructure for climate control, lighting, and circulation in a discreet manner. The materials palette combined preserved elements such as marble floors and frescoed ceilings with new features like staircases and partitions finished in subdued tones to complement the classical architecture. A defining feature was the “Castello” lighting system Aulenti co-designed, an aluminum track-lighting grid that provided adaptable illumination for exhibitions; the system later received the Compasso d’Oro industrial design award in 1995. Through Aulenti’s work, Palazzo Grassi became an important venue for international exhibitions, exemplifying her ability to introduce contemporary use into a historic environment without compromising its integrity.

03. Palau Nacional / Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona

The Palau Nacional in Barcelona, Spain, is a monumental building constructed for the 1929 World’s Fair and later designated to house the National Art Museum of Catalonia (MNAC). Gae Aulenti participated in the redesign of sections of the palace to upgrade it into a museum facility. Between 1985 and 1992, she focused on refurbishing the Saló Oval, the central hall, and adjacent galleries as part of Barcelona’s broader cultural renewal before the 1992 Summer Olympics. The project involved the transformation of a civic building into a functional museum environment. Aulenti maintained the Spanish Renaissance Revival exterior and ornate interiors while adapting them for large-scale art displays. The work combined museum interior architecture and restoration: she introduced glazing behind the grand arches of the Oval Hall to increase natural light and developed new exhibition layouts within the historic rooms. Materials such as glass and steel were applied with restraint, using contemporary panels and lighting rigs to improve visibility while preserving the hall’s atmosphere. The Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya reopened in stages, with Aulenti’s design supporting the presentation of medieval murals and Catalan modernist works. The project demonstrated her ability to extend her adaptive reuse expertise beyond Italy and France. The restored Palau Nacional remains a major cultural institution in Barcelona, defined in part by Gae Aulenti’s balanced integration of historical preservation and modern functionality.

04. Scuderie del Quirinale, Rome

The Scuderie del Quirinale in Rome is an 18th-century papal stable complex that Gae Aulenti converted into an art exhibition hall. Situated beside the Quirinal Palace, the former stables had long been unused before their renovation for the Grand Jubilee celebrations in 2000. Aulenti was commissioned in the late 1990s to redesign the structure as a gallery space suitable for major public exhibitions. Completed in 1999, the project preserved the historic exterior while fully renewing the interior for contemporary use. The Scuderie del Quirinale exemplifies adaptive reuse and architectural restoration. Aulenti introduced new structural elements, including stairways, an elevator, and flexible galleries within the existing envelope of the building. The venue functions as an exhibition space designed for rotating art shows, requiring reinforced floors and modern environmental systems. Materials such as steel and glass defined the new interventions, allowing visitors to distinguish between original and contemporary components. A glass elevator tower and discreet rear entrance were added to maintain the symmetry of the main façade. Inside, white walls and lighting contrast with preserved brickwork and vaulted ceilings. The renovation created a balanced interior where Italy’s artistic heritage is displayed within a restored historic setting. The successful conversion reinforced Aulenti’s position in Italy as a leading architect for cultural projects, and the venue continues to host significant international exhibitions.

05. Asian Art Museum, San Francisco

The Asian Art Museum in San Francisco, California, illustrates Gae Aulenti’s ability to adapt civic buildings into museums. Completed in 2003, the project involved converting the city’s former Main Library, a Beaux-Arts structure from 1917, into a museum for Asian art and artifacts. Aulenti served as principal architect for the interior redesign, working with local firms to meet California’s seismic and building standards. The building’s Civic Center location and granite façade were retained to preserve its civic identity. Inside, Aulenti reorganized the space with a grand central stairway and opened the multistory atrium to establish clear visitor circulation. The design, classified as a museum conversion, integrated the library’s existing structural system, columns, and high ceilings with new galleries, an auditorium, and educational spaces. Materials such as stone, metal, and glass skylights were used to create a contemporary yet durable interior. The design included restrained Asian references and natural light to complement the collection. The Asian Art Museum was one of Aulenti’s major American works, demonstrating her philosophy of adaptive reuse within a U.S. context. The project provided San Francisco with a cultural institution that balances historic preservation with modern functionality, reinforcing Gae Aulenti’s global architectural reach.

How did Gae Aulenti contribute to architecture?

Gae Aulenti contributed to architecture by redefining how designers engage with existing structures and by promoting a multidisciplinary approach to design. Throughout her career, Aulenti demonstrated that architecture could remain rooted in context and history while meeting contemporary needs. She advanced the practice of adaptive reuse, proving through major projects that historic buildings from train stations to palaces could be transformed rather than demolished. This principle, that preservation and functionality can coexist, became influential in late-20th-century architecture and remains integral to urban development and museum design. Aulenti’s work also integrated architecture, interior design, and industrial design. She approached each project comprehensively, designing not only the renovation but also the lighting, furniture, and displays. This unified method encouraged architects to consider the complete spatial experience. Aulenti contributed to architectural theory through her involvement in the Neo-Liberty movement, which emphasized individual expression and local identity in design. By rejecting standardized modernism, she inspired architects to embed cultural context and personality in their work. As one of the leading women in a male-dominated profession, Aulenti expanded representation in architecture. Her achievements demonstrated that leadership depends on skill and vision, setting a precedent that encouraged more women to shape the field.

What awards and honors has Gae Aulenti received?

Gae Aulenti received awards honoring her influence in architecture, adaptive reuse, and cultural design, including:

• Praemium Imperiale for Architecture (1991) – Aulenti received the Praemium Imperiale for Architecture from Japan, an international award recognizing lifetime achievement and influence in architecture and the arts.
• Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (1995) – One of Italy’s highest civilian honors, the Cavaliere di Gran Croce was awarded to Gae Aulenti for her distinguished contributions to Italian architecture and design.
• Chevalier of the Légion d’Honneur (France, awarded in the 1980s) – France granted Aulenti the Knight rank of the Légion d’Honneur for her work on cultural projects, including the Musée d’Orsay.
• Ordre des Arts et des Lettres – Commandeur (France, 1987) – Aulenti was appointed Commander in the Order of Arts and Letters for her impact on the arts, architecture, and design during her period of major work in Paris.
• Compasso d’Oro Award (Italy, 1995) – Aulenti received Italy’s top industrial design prize for the “Castello” lighting system created for Palazzo Grassi, recognizing her design excellence beyond architecture.

Aulenti’s additional distinctions include the Architecture Medal from the Académie d’Architecture in Paris (1983), the Honorary Dean of Architecture title in Chicago (1988), and the Japan Foundation Award (1991).

Did Gae Aulenti change the architecture industry?

Gae Aulenti influenced architecture by redefining approaches to adaptive reuse and museum design. Although she did not establish a new architectural style, her successful transformations of historic buildings demonstrated that repurposing existing structures could achieve results equal to new construction. Her work helped shift professional attitudes by elevating renovation and interior reconfiguration to the same status as ground-up design. Many later projects—factories converted into art centers, warehouses into residences, train stations into cultural spaces—built on the precedent she set with works such as the Musée d’Orsay. Aulenti’s career also advanced inclusivity in architecture. In mid-20th-century Italy, the field was overwhelmingly male, yet her leadership proved that women could direct large-scale projects and define architectural discourse. Her example encouraged more women to pursue prominent roles, a change that continues to shape the profession. Aulenti also reinforced the interdisciplinary nature of design by demonstrating that architects who integrate interiors, furniture, and exhibition design can achieve cohesive results. This broadened the profession’s outlook, encouraging collaboration between design disciplines. Additionally, her emphasis on context and narrative contributed to the postmodern movement that influenced late-20th-century architecture.

Was Gae Aulenti ever controversial in any way?

Gae Aulenti generally avoided personal controversy, though some of her projects provoked debate within architectural circles. Most criticism centered on her design decisions in sensitive historic contexts. When the Musée d’Orsay opened in 1986, several critics objected to her interior interventions, describing elements such as wire-mesh partitions and large stone surfaces as excessive. Similar reactions arose during her renovations of other landmark buildings, where some considered her modern additions incongruous with the original architecture. Later, in the Italian Cultural Institute in Tokyo (completed 2005), Aulenti’s choice of red-brown exterior cladding drew comments from local observers who felt it was too strong for its surroundings. Despite these debates, Aulenti defended her work and maintained confidence in her design philosophy. Known for her decisiveness, she addressed criticism of the Musée d’Orsay by highlighting the museum’s success with the public. No scandals or misconduct were associated with Aulenti; her reputation among peers and clients remained professional and disciplined. Disagreements surrounding her work were primarily intellectual—differences over style and interpretation—rather than personal. Over time, many of her once-contentious projects came to be viewed as forward-looking contributions to architectural discourse.

Who are the most famous architects in modern history besides Gae Aulenti?

Aside from Gae Aulenti, Renzo Piano, Frank Gehry, and Zaha Hadid are among the most influential architects to have shaped modern architecture. Piano (Italian, born 1937) gained recognition as co-designer of the Centre Pompidou in Paris and later created landmark works, including The Shard in London and the Whitney Museum in New York. Recipient of the Pritzker Prize in 1998, Piano is known for precise engineering and the integration of architecture with its urban setting. Gehry (Canadian-American, born 1929) redefined architectural form through a deconstructivist approach, producing works such as the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles, and the Dancing House in Prague. Awarded the Pritzker Prize in 1989, Gehry is noted for advancing digital design and material experimentation. Hadid (Iraqi-British, 1950–2016), the first woman to receive the Pritzker Prize (2004), introduced a fluid architectural language characterized by dynamic curves and spatial innovation in projects such as the London Aquatics Centre, the Guangzhou Opera House, and the Heydar Aliyev Center in Baku. Her work and career paralleled Aulenti’s in challenging gender barriers in architecture, and her legacy continues through her firm, Zaha Hadid Architects.  Beyond these global figures, many architects identified by the Architecture Foundation have influenced the field across generations. Among established figures are Sir David Adjaye, designer of the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture in Washington, D.C., and Alison Brooks, whose Accordia housing in Cambridge earned the Stirling Prize in 2008. Mid-career architects include Amanda Levete, noted for the MAAT museum in Lisbon; Sadie Morgan, co-founder of dRMM and designer of the award-winning Hastings Pier; and Alex de Rijke, recognized for innovations in timber construction such as the “Endless Stair” in London. Emerging architects include Asif Khan, creator of the Coca-Cola Pavilion at the 2012 London Olympics; Mary Duggan, designer of the Garden Museum renovation in London; and David Kohn, known for experimental work including the Skyroom rooftop pavilion. Among newer voices are Jack Richards, designer of the Floating Church in London; Hikaru Nissanke, co-founder of OMMX and creator of the House of Trace; and Sarah Izod, whose conceptual installations explore relationships between art and architecture.

What did Gae Aulenti mostly design?

Gae Aulenti primarily designed cultural and interior environments, with her work spanning key categories that reflected both her range and the architectural context of her time:

• Museums and Exhibition Spaces: Aulenti is best known for the design and renovation of museums, galleries, and cultural centers. She frequently adapted historic buildings into exhibition venues, including the conversion of the Gare d’Orsay into the Musée d’Orsay, the refurbishment of Palazzo Grassi, and redesigns within the Centre Pompidou. Her work in this field also includes the Scuderie del Quirinale in Rome and the Asian Art Museum in San Francisco. These projects exemplify adaptive reuse, integrating museum programs into preexisting structures.
• Showrooms and Retail Interiors: Early in her career, Aulenti gained recognition for showroom designs for Fiat and Olivetti. She treated commercial interiors as experimental spatial compositions, using features such as inclined display ramps and sculptural window installations. These projects demonstrated her ability to merge spatial design with brand identity.
• Furniture and Lighting Design: Beyond architecture, Aulenti was an accomplished designer of furniture and lighting. Her notable pieces include the Pipistrello lamp (1965), characterized by its bat-like shade, and the Tavolo con Ruote (1980), a glass table mounted on industrial wheels, now part of the Museum of Modern Art’s collection in New York. She also created chairs, tables, and lighting systems such as the Castello series, extending her architectural logic into industrial design.
• Theater and Stage Set Design: Aulenti applied architectural thinking to stage and set design for opera and theater. She collaborated with director Luca Ronconi in the 1970s, co-founding a theater workshop in Prato. Her sets for productions like Wozzeck at La Scala (1977) explored spatial narrative and the interplay between structure and performance.

Aulenti’s practice extended beyond these categories. She completed urban projects such as Milan’s Piazzale Cadorna redevelopment (2000) and designed new buildings, including the Italian Cultural Institute in Tokyo (2005) and the Perugia airport expansion (2011). Across all her work, Aulenti maintained a consistent focus on how users experience space and form. Whether in a gallery, showroom, or stage, she approached design as an exploration of context and human interaction. Her broad portfolio demonstrates that she was not confined to a single discipline, but instead created environments that combined modern functionality with historical awareness.

Where did Gae Aulenti study?

Gae Aulenti studied architecture at the Politecnico di Milano in Italy, completing her degree in 1954. She enrolled in the Department of Architecture in 1948, during the postwar years when Italy was redefining its approach to design and reconstruction. Aulenti was one of only two women in her graduating class of about twenty students, a reflection of the gender disparity in architectural education at the time. Her education at Milan emphasized modernist principles but was enriched by the city’s active cultural environment, which exposed her to a wide range of artistic and theoretical influences. At the Politecnico, she was influenced by prominent Italian architects and thinkers; the school maintained strong ties with figures such as Ernesto Nathan Rogers, a modernist architect and theorist who became one of her mentors, and hosted lectures from international pioneers. During these years, Aulenti developed a foundation that combined technical rigor with an appreciation for historical context. Milan’s mix of modern and traditional architecture, along with its dynamic design community, shaped her emerging architectural philosophy. After graduating, she maintained her academic connections, teaching briefly at the Venice School of Architecture in the 1960s and contributing to architectural discourse through writing and editorial work.

Did Gae Aulenti have any famous teachers or students?

Yes, Gae Aulenti had notable mentors and influenced many younger architects, though she did not have formal students in the academic sense. One of her most important mentors was Ernesto Nathan Rogers, a leading Italian architect and theorist. Rogers, a central figure in the Neo-Liberty movement and editor of Casabella, where Aulenti worked early in her career, exposed her to humanist architectural theory and the importance of context in design. During her university years in Milan, she also encountered the ideas of modern masters such as Walter Gropius, Le Corbusier, and Frank Lloyd Wright—architects who were not her instructors but whose works and lectures shaped the academic environment she studied in. These experiences provided a foundation that profoundly influenced her architectural philosophy. Although Aulenti did not teach as a long-term studio professor, she mentored many collaborators and emerging designers through her practice. Colleagues and assistants have described her as a formative influence who encouraged rigorous thinking and independence in design. Italian designers like Cini Boeri and Anna Castelli Ferrieri, contemporaries slightly younger than Aulenti, admired her pioneering presence in the postwar design scene. Internationally, her projects and methodology have been studied extensively in architecture schools, serving as models of adaptive reuse and contextual design. Within her own family, her daughter, Giovanna Buzzi—a costume designer who worked with her on stage projects—absorbed her discipline and artistic approach, reflecting Aulenti’s mentorship beyond architecture.

How can students learn from Gae Aulenti’s work?

Students can learn from Gae Aulenti’s work by studying her design principles, analyzing her key projects, and adopting the interdisciplinary mindset that defined her practice. Examining her adaptive reuse projects provides essential lessons: architecture students can study how Aulenti approached conversions such as the Musée d’Orsay and the Asian Art Museum, preserving defining features—facades, halls, and decorative elements—while introducing new functions and modern systems. Her work demonstrates how to balance preservation and transformation, a skill increasingly relevant in contemporary urban design. Aulenti’s attention to human experience and interior space also offers valuable insight. Visiting or digitally exploring her spaces, including the spatial flow of the Orsay galleries or the entrance sequence of the San Francisco museum, reveals how she organized circulation, lighting, and sightlines to shape perception. Analyzing her layouts teaches how form follows function within emotionally resonant environments. Her furniture and exhibition design further reinforce the connection between scale and cohesion. Aulenti treated every element—furniture, lighting, display systems—as part of a single architectural vision. Recreating works such as the Pipistrello lamp or Tavolo con Ruote provides lessons in proportion and material clarity. Equally instructive is Aulenti’s insistence on individuality and intellectual independence. She rejected trends, asserting that when a style became fashionable, she preferred to take a different direction. This conviction encourages students to develop distinct voices rooted in critical thinking rather than fashion. Reading her writings, where she discussed ideas like “double ambiguity” in historical contexts, reveals how she approached complex design problems analytically. Aulenti’s professional journey also demonstrates resilience and collaboration. Her career as a woman in a male-dominated field underscores the importance of persistence and competence. She advised young designers to remain engaged even in unwelcoming environments. Her collaborative practice, working closely with engineers, lighting designers, and artists, shows that architecture thrives through shared expertise. By studying Gae Aulenti’s integrated approach, respect for context, and conceptual clarity, students can gain enduring lessons for their own architectural development.